Aristotle
Virtue or excellence is a psychic phenomenon. Is it an emotion, or the capacity to experience an emotion? An emotion is something we feel or undergo and we cannot hold ourselves responsible for that; but it is an essential feature of virtue that we praise it, of vice that we blame it. But we do not praise and blame that for which we cannot be held responsible. Therefore, neither virtue nor vice can be an emotion or the capacity to experience an emotion. Virtue and vice should be understood, rather, as dispositions, a certain habitual stance we take in regard to our emotions. Someone who is habitually afraid of everything has developed a disposition of cowardice in regard to the emotion of fear, for which he can be blamed; someone who is habitually inclined neither to indulge in pleasures excessively nor to shun them at all costs has developed a disposition of moderation in relation to the desire for pleasure, for which he can be praised. These praiseworthy and blameworthy dispositions are not something we are born with; nor, on the other hand, can they be taught theoretically. They are acquired by a process of habituation, which begins with parents' training of children. As humans, we take pleasure in being praise
d, and are pained by the shame that accompanies blame; this pleasure and pain can be used to mold an immediate or natural attraction to pleasure and repulsion from pain which would not prove to be the good for us. Hence, a person who acts for his or her own well must also act for the good of all fellow citizens. Virtue requires that virtuous action be motivated by virtue: action must be not only in accord with, but also done for the sake of virtue. In the cases of bravery or courage, acting in that way produces someone who is that kind of person. There are four different types of injury to others (1) Misadventure (reasonable expectation), (2) Mistakes (not reasonable expectations, (3) act of injustice (actions due to anger and other passions). The just man, for example, does what is just knowing that it is just and wanting to act justly simply because it is just. Aristotle believed that a person who has difficulty behaving ethically is morally imperfect. It is, then, by practicing moderation that we develop a moderate disposition; of course, we can only be said to be virtuous when we practice moderate actions motivated by a disposition of moderation, which is different from the motive governing our practice such actions in the process of acquiring that virtue. He said pleasure was enjoyable but that it is more an animal quality than human, and that wealth is merely a means to towards a greater good. Aristotle felt that through the four qualities of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice, could a person be led to happiness. In this case the person is responsible for his actions and considered unfair and unjust. We are not responsible for the feelings we have; but we can be held accountable for the way that we deal with them. Furthermore, Aristotle argues that people act justly or unjustly voluntary. His ideal person practices the "golden mean of moderation. He supports his point with so many examples that you realize that he is completely right.
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