psyche
PSY 2301 - MODULE 9: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Learning - relatively permanent change in behavior due to experienceHumans are most capable of all the species to change behavior through learning Helps organism to adapt to its environmentAssociative learning - learning through association of one stimulus to another: lightning to thunderAcquisition - initial learning of responseNeutral stimulus should be followed immediately by UCS for best results Reversing classically conditioned response by pairing CS with UCS to achieve response that cannot occur at same time as undesirable CR Pairing feared white rabbit with cookies Cannot eat cookie and cry at same time Introduce cookie first, then rabbit Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be closely associated in time Behavior is not new; association with different stimulus is new If individual's behavior determines whether stimulus is presented, process not classical conditioning Limited application because limited number of unconditioned stimuli/responsesClassical conditioning is one way all organisms learn to adapt to environmentShowed how learning (internal process)
good health/longevity2) Consistency in delivery of reinforcement essential in beginning of learning processWhat is used as positive reinforcer must be desirable, have value to receiving person Continuous reinforcement - desired response gets reinforced every time it occurs Learning and extinction both occur rapidlyPartial reinforcement promotes slower learning but greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement Parking places, gamblingReinforcement emphasizes what to do; punishment focuses on what not to doRecipient's subsequent behavior determines whether consequence is reinforcing or punishingWhether subsequent behavior is desirable or undesirable does not determine whether or not it was reinforced or punishedWhether subsequent behavior increases or decreases determines whether it was reinforced or punishedResults are not always what is intendedReinforcers are not always rewards for good behavior; undesired behaviors often reinforcedAlbert Bandura proposed social cognitive learning, alternative to operant conditioning (pp. 223-226)Results from watching, imitating, and modeling and does not require observer to perform any observable behavior or receive of any observable rewardComplete opposite of Skinner's theory that only observable behavior important and that behavior shaped by environment through reinforcers and punishmentBobo doll experimentsChildren saw adult strike, kick, etc. while yelling, "Hit him! Kick him!"Children who observed aggressive behavior later copied it when frustrated and doll availableChildren who observed aggressive behavior but did not copy it initially, later demonstrated same behavior when offered reward to do soBandura achieved similar results in reducing fear of snakes subjects watching a live model handle a snake and then later imitating some of observed behaviors Experimental group scored average of 27 on 29-step approach scale compared to control group's 10Observational learning is also called modelingLearn to imitate by observing another's behavior Models can be positive or negative More likely to imitate models:Whose behavior we see reinforced (vicarious reinforcement) than model behavior we see punishedWe respect and admire Perceived as similarPerceived as successful4 processes of social cognitive learning:Observer must pay attention to what model says or doesObserver must store information in memory Observer must be able to imitate model's behavior Observer must have some motivation to imitate model's behavior Insight learning is marked by sudden solution to problem, "ah-ha" experience Chimp, Sultan, put in room with banana hanging from ceiling out of his reach Box also in room, set off to side After trying unsuccessfully to reach banana, he paced restlessly Then, he moved box under banana, climbed onto it, and grabbed banana Similar experiment done later with Sultan given several sticks, none of which was long enough to reach banana Tried but could not reach food, gave up Suddenly put two sticks together, then knocked banana down within reach Developing insight aided by previous experience PSY 2301 - MODULE 7: CONSCIOUSNESS, SLEEP & DREAMSFreud believed daydreams reduce tension from unfulfilled needs/wishesDaydreams may reflect current concerns and emotions, possibly increase tensionDaydreams help us rehearse, enhance creativity, and may substitute for impulsive behaviorDrug users and delinquent/violent individuals daydream lessStage 1 Transition from wakefulness to sleep Twilight state, neither daydreaming nor dreaming Hypnagogic state May hallucinate (sensory experiences without sensory stimulus) Lose voluntary control over body movements Easily awakenedStage 2 More deeply relaxed High frequency bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles Easily awakenedStage 3 Brief transition to stage 4 Lasts only few minutesStage 4 Deepest sleep, most difficult from which to awakenSleepwalking, talking during sleep, bedwetting, night terrors, getting up to go to bathroom generally occur during this stageNon-REM dreams Dream about 50% of time Dreams more like daytime thought processing than REM dreams Less likely to be recalledREM dreams emotional and storylike Most are negative or combination of positive and negative emotionsAverage college student spends 2 hours/night in REM sleep, has 30-40 REM dreams/ weekStimulus incorporation is including real-world current event into dreamLucid dreams - aware that you are dreamingSleep cycle repeats itself every 90 minutes Deep stage 4 sleep gets briefer REM sleep period gets progressively longerPSY 2301 - MODULE 8: HYPNOSIS & DRUGSPhysical dependence results from body craving drug due to its interference with production of neurotransmitters which drug stimulates, inhibits or mimicsPsychological dependence to relieve stress/negative emotions Factors influencing individual's response to drug:1) Physical condition Body weight, metabolism, emotional state, individual tolerance2) Experience with drug Number of times used and level of use in past3) Environmental setting Sleepy after one glass of wine at home vs. energetic after three glasses of wine at party4) Mental set Reason for taking drug Expectations about its effect Whether we want to justify some behavior Addicts use drugs to escape from real world; people living with chronic pain use same drugs to function in real world "Think-drink" effect Alcohol increases likelihood of aggressive behavior, but only if persons aware they are consuming alcohol About half of all men arrested for assaulting their wives claim to have been drinking at time, although most do not have enough alcohol in their system to qualify as legally intoxicated, and many have not been drinking immediately prior to being violentAlcohol did not make men violent; use of alcohol provided excuse to behave violently However, alcohol and other drugs are not merely placebosInfluenced not only by what friends do but what adolescents believe friends are doingBest predictor of adolescent's use of drugs/alcohol is whether close friends use drugs/ alcoholBiological model of addiction states that addiction to alcohol or other drugs is due primarily to person's biochemistry, metabolism, or genetic predispositionPersons with alcoholic family members are at greater riskType I alcoholism begins in adulthood and is not associated with genetic factorsType II alcoholism begins in adolescence, has hereditary component, and is linked to impulsivity, antisocial behavior, and violent criminalityGenes also affect person's level of response to alcohol Persons who need to drink more to feel effects are at increased risk of becoming alcoholic, regardless of current drinking habits or family history Learning model of addiction describes addiction to any drug as central activity in individual's way of life, learned coping mechanism1) Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices and social environment When people do not learn how to drink moderately, they are more likely to drink irresponsibly and in binges In cultures with low rates of alcoholism:Adults demonstrate correct drinking habits to their children, gradually introducing them to alcohol in safe family settingsAlcohol is not used as rite of passage into adulthood, associated with masculinity and power, or viewed as virtue or sinPolicies of total abstinence tend to increase rates of addiction rather than reduce them3) Not all addicts go through withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking drug Nearly 30% of American soldiers during Vietnam War were taking heroin in doses far stronger than street drugs; yet 90% gave up drug, without withdrawal pain, when they came home4) Addiction does not depend on drug alone but also reason person is taking it People living with chronic pain use drugs to function in real world and usually do not become addicted; addicts use drugs to escape from real worldHaving psychological problems is more often cause of drug abuse rather than effect of itPersons who drink alcohol to cope with negative feelings (anxiety, depression, tension) have significantly more drinking problems than those who drink due to fatigue, boredom Learning model believes controlled drinking is possible Biological Model of Addiction Learning Model of Addiction Addiction is genetic, biological Addiction is way of coping Once an addict, always an addict Persons can grow beyond need for alcohol or other drugs An addict must abstain from drug(s) forever Most problem drinkers can learn to drink in moderation Persons are either addicted or not Degree of addiction varies, depending on situation Solution is medical treatment and membership in groups that reinforce permanent identity as recovering addict Solution involves learning new coping skills and changing environment Addict needs same treatment and group support forever Treatment lasts only until persons no longer abuse drug PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS AND THEIR EFFECTSDrug Category: Stimulants Increase activity of central nervous system, resulting in sense of energy and well being Type of Drug What it Does Common Effects Dependency Produced Results of Abuse/Addiction Amphetamines (speed, crank, crystal) · Increases release of dopamine and blocks its reuptake · Wakefulness, alertness, raised metabolism, elevated mood · Rapid psychological dependence · No physical dependence · Nervousness, headaches, loss of appetite, high blood pressure, delusions, psychosis, heart damage, convulsions, death Cocaine (crack) · Blocks reuptake of dopamine · Excites dopamine receptor, producing pleasure/euphoria · Excites glutamate receptor, producing craving for more · Euphoria, excitation, energy boost, suppressed appetite · Excellent local anesthetic · Physical dependency · Excitability, sleeplessness, sweating, paranoia, anxiety, panic, depression, heart damage, heart failure, injury to nose if sniffed · If given unlimited access, humans and monkeys will use continually, to point of starvation and death Caffeine Most widely used psychoactive drug in world (85%) · Blocks adenosine receptors in brain · Wakefulness, alertness, shortened reaction time · Mild to heavy daily doses (2-5+ cups/ coffee) can produce physical addiction · Psychological dependency similar to alcohol, nicotine, cocaine · Restlessness, insomnia, muscle tension, heartbeat irregularities, high blood pressure Nicotine (tobacco) 2nd most widely used psychoactive drug in world · Stimulates cholinergic receptors in brain, then blocks them · Activates same brain areas as cocaine · Varies from alertness to calmness, depending on mental set, setting, and prior arousal · In low doses, improves attention, concentration, and short-term memory · Decreases appetite for carbohydrates · Produces physical and psychological dependence · Heart disease, high blood pressure, impaired circulation, lung cancer, emphysema, mouth and throat cancer · Smoking during pregnancy increases risk of lower birth weight, premature delivery, and infant death · Single largest avoidable cause of death · Stopping smoking increases life expectancy more than any other preventive measure Drug Category: Depressants Calm neural activity, slow down body functions, lead to relaxed state and lowered inhibitions Type of Drug What It Does Common Effects Dependency Produced Results of Abuse/Addiction Opiates/ narcotics (heroin, morphine) · Natural opiate receptors in brain, gastrointestinal tract · Euphoria, relief of pain · Sudden high, followed by relaxed, lethargic drowsiness · Physical dependence · Natural endorphin production decreases · Loss of appetite, nausea, constipation, convulsions · Coma, possibly death, due to respiratory failure Sedatives: tranquilizers, barbiturates (Quaaludes, Valium, Xanax) · Reduced anxiety and tension, sedation · Physical dependence · Require prescription · Medical detoxification needed · Increased dosage needed for effect · Impaired motor and sensory functions, processing information into long-term memory · Impaired long-term memory · Possibly convulsions, coma, death, especially when taken with other drugs Alcohol Most widely abused drug in U. can be studied objectivelyPSY 2301 - MODULE 10: OPERANT & COGNITIVE APPROACHESGuidelines for using reinforcers:1) Timing Positive reinforcement must be given shortly following response Greater delay between response and reinforcer, slower learning Small but immediate reinforcement may be more effective than powerful but delayed reinforcement Food vs. · Stimulates GABA receptors · Blocks NMDA receptors · Depends on setting, mental set · Reduces inhibitions, anxiety Slows reaction time, reduces ability to store new memories or retrieve old ones · Physical dependence · Medical detoxification needed · Blackouts, cirrhosis, organic damage, mental and neurological impairment, psychosis, possibly death · 3rd leading cause of death · 5 times as many men as women become alcoholics · Shortens life expectancy by average of 12 years · Drinking during pregnancy linked to FAS (#1 cause of mental retardation) · Impairs sexual functioning · Depression diagnosed twice as often in alcoholics as nonalcoholics · Increases risk of suicide Type of Drug What It Does Common Effects Dependency Produced Results of Abuse/Addiction Marijuana Most widely used illegal drug worldwide · THC receptor · THC similar to neuro-transmitter anandamide · Relaxation, euphoria, increased appetite, reduced ability to store new memories · Other effects depend on mental set and setting · Legitimate medical applications · Stays in body for month or more · Psychological dependence · Not as physically addictive as caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol · More damaging than cigarettes to lungs · Short term: impairs motor coordination, reaction time, judgment, use of peripheral vision, and suppresses immune system · Long term: depresses male sex hormone and sperm levels, hastens loss of brain cells Drug Category: Hallucinogens Distort perceptions, evoke hallucinations LSD, psilocybin, mescaline · Increases stimulation of serontonin receptors · Exhilaration, visions and hallucinations, insightful experiences · Tolerance develops but not physically addictive · Psychosis, paranoia, panic reactions Designer Drugs Manufactured/synthetic drugs that mimic effects of existing illegal psychoactive drugs MDMA/ecstasy Releases and blocks serontonin receptors · Euphoria, high energy, increased thirst · Panic, rapid heart beat, paranoia · Confusion, fatigue, depression, and nausea · Not as physically addictive as cocaine or heroin · Memory impairment · High blood pressure, increased body temperature, teeth grinding, liver damage . weight loss Cigarette smoking vs.
Common topics in this essay:
Abuse/Addiction Amphetamines,
DREAMS Freud,
DRUGS Physical,
Type II,
Kick Children,
Timing Positive,
Blocks NMDA,
Abuse/Addiction Marijuana,
Vietnam War,
Addiction Addiction,
dependence ·,
physical dependence,
· physical,
psy 2301 module,
real world,
mental set,
blood pressure,
psychological dependence,
model addiction,
death ·,
· physical dependence,
physical dependence ·,
receptors ·,
drug common effects,
effects dependency produced,
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Acceptance Essays
