hypnosis
According to some sources, hypnotism has a long history, and has been utilized by humans since people first began settling into tribes (LeCron & Bordeaux, 1949; LeCron, 1954). The modern definition of hypnosis is that it is a "state of attentive, receptive concentration with a relative suspension of peripheral awareness," and there is said to be a record of people entering trance-like states in China as early as the eighteenth century B.C. while attempting to commune with the dead (LeCron, 1954; Spiegel & Maldonado, 1999, p. 1244). Forms of hypnotism have long been used by religious and spiritual leaders, whether those be priests, shamans, or others. Hypnotism and trance states can even be found in early Judeo-Christian faith, as there are accounts of such phenomena in the Old Testament (LeCron, 1954). It is speculated that these early civilizations used hypnotism as a form of anesthesia and a means of healing (LeCron & Bordeaux, 1949). For instance, the Druids seemed to have used hypnosis as a means of making people forget troubling events, allowing them to heal and overcome their woes (LeCron, 1954). We will see that as the history of hypnotism progresses, hypnosis will be used for these same sorts of purposes.
By the 1840s, physicians began utilizing the practice as a means of anesthesia for surgery, and some were producing reports of surgeries in which mesmerism was used (Goodwin, 1999). However, those reviewed who were in smoking cessation programs that did not employ hypnosis were found to have only a 30% success rate three months after the intervention program began (Sperry & Carlson, 1990). Mesmer felt that magnets' ability to attract and repel each other was a similar pattern to the forces shared between the tides and the sun and moon. As interest in and scientific study of hypnosis continued to grow, varying theories were developed to explain the ability to enter a hypnotic state. As many of those who suffer from dissociative identity disorder are also victims of some sort of child or sexual abuse, hypnosis may be more successful if paired with therapeutic attempts at getting patients to recognize and understand the traumatic occurrences they experienced, rather than repressing those and dissociating them from themselves (Spiegel & Maldonado, 1999). However, while it seems that the Nancy school was managing to act as the prominent force, Charcot did work with one individual who would come to greatly shape psychology - Sigmund Freud (Goodwin, 1999). Still, he received little support from the scientific community, though he managed to stir up more controversy, provoking others to create pamphlets in support of or against his ideas (Forrest, 1999). They also spoke to the patients once they were in the hypnotic trance, simply telling them or "suggesting" that their symptoms would be alleviated. Mesmer felt that illness was the product of forces that were opposing each other within the body, and magnets could realign the forces (Goodwin, 1999). When Freud was first developing his style of therapy, he used hypnosis as a means to alleviate patients' neuroses before settling on his method of free association (Goodwin, 1999). With time, clinicians may be able to help patients curb their symptoms of dissociative identity disorder. According to Mesmer's account, she suffered from a "hysterical fever [that] caused continual vomiting, inflammation of the bowels, stoppage of urine, excruciating tooth-ache, ear-ache, melancholy, depression, delirium, fits of frenzy, catalepsy, fainting fits, blindness, breathlessness, paralyses lasting some days, and other symptoms" (Forrest, 1999, p. Some research analyses have shown that under "favorable treatment circumstances," at least half, and sometimes up to two-thirds, of clients will remain abstinent from cigarette smoking for at least six months.
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