In the visual arts the sixteenth century saw the spread of Italian Renaissance ideas northward. In some cases they were carried by Italian artists like Benvenuto Cellini, who went to work in France. Cellini was Goldsmith to Francis I of France from 1537 to 1545. He completed here his first sculpture, the Salt Cellar. He imparted the monumentality of sculpture to a goldsmith's design. The two langorous somatic types reflect the plethora of stucco work (polished like marble to imitate Roman techniques) produced by Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio at Fontainebleau. The style of the School of Fontainebleau and Italian Maniera is characterized by an elongation and abstraction of the poised rather than moving body, creating an unnatural elegance and sophistication. The cellar's iconography reads like a programme for sculpture. The goddess of earth, holding her breast and a cornucopia to signify her nutritive powers, is flanked by a miniature Ionic temple for pepper corns. The god of the sea (Neptune), with trident and shell chariot, is flanked by a boat for salt. The elaborate ebony base is decorated with cartouches of reclining figures. They represent the four times of day alternating with four winds of seasons. Practical yet
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Luther spoke highly of des Prez, who may have instructed Erasmus in music. Best known is his Missa Papae Marcelli. But not all his contemporaries showed the same interest in Italian styles. He was undisputed master of the mass, of which he wrote 105 for four, five, six, and eight voice parts. In 1550 the bishop of Palestrina became Pope Julius III and appointed (1551) Palestrina master of the Julian Chapel Choir. From 1555 to 1560 he was choirmaster of the Cathedral of St.
The supreme achievement in English literature of the time-and perhaps of all time can be found in the works of William Shakespeare. Unfortunately, it was stolen from the museum and its present whereabouts is unknown. He wrote masses and miscellaneous Italian pieces, but he was particularly noted for his chansons and motets.
Josquin Desprez was a Flemish composer regarded by his contemporaries as the greatest of his age. Their work has other characteristics in common: a pessimistic attitude toward human nature and the use of satire-yet the final effect is very different.
Matthias Grünewald's paintings do not show Renaissance concerns for humanism and ideal beauty; instead, they draw on traditional medieval German art to project the artist's own passionate religious beliefs, formed against the background of the bitter conflict of the Peasants' War.
Music, on the other hand, was central to Reformation practice: Luther himself was a hymn writer of note. , differentiation of choral and solo ensembles.
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