Cognitive Psychology
The cognitive approaches to the study of motivation come with one important thing that drive approaches did not account for, the O. Drive theorist dealt mainly with the stimulus and the response produced; cognitive theorists factored in the role of the organism that receives the stimulus. Cognitive theorists explained that it is not just acting on a whim, but rather that there is some thought process involved. Though it may be a short process, and the action may come soon after the stimulus, the organism thinks about what to do and doesn't just do it. Tolman comes to us with the explanation that cognition was and is involved in the motivation of behavior. Immediately Tolman brings to the table what both Freud and Skinner did not, thinking. Tolman also brings two other very important factors that set him out from the drive theorists, expectation and goal. Expectation is the cognitive process that tells the organism what might be able to satisfy a certain physiological need. Goal is a plan to engage in a behavior based on the expectation to achieve a certain outcome. Tolman's theory is somewhat similar to Thorndike's Law of Effect in some aspects although he adds a few twists to include expectation. Tolman theorized tha
T!his example shows that organisms learn timing of behaviors and/or how to change behaviors to reach the expected outcome. A person has a demand for something that arose from a bodily need. Learned helplessness is the psychological state that happens as a result of an individual's expectancy that life's outcomes are uncontrollable. , Rodney is hungry again, and the ice cream cone he had last night was so good and it satisfied him so well that he wants another one. This contingency between the behavior and the outcome is much like Tolman's theory that the expectation of a specific outcome predicts behavior. When the individual concludes that the outcome is uncontrollable they are in this state that is called learned helplessness. His goal is to satisfy the hunger need with a nice ice cream cone. This is one concept that seems to come directly from Tolman's point of view. Bandura states that there is a relationship between behaviors and outcomes. Therefore if an organism stops to think about what the goal of the behavior is and what the outcome of that behavior might be, the organism could think wrongly and behave unaccordingly. So, instead, of his behavior being that of politely asking his mommy, he changes his behavior. If a person has a high self-efficacy they believe that they are competen!t and can achieve even in the face of failure. Seligman like Tolman deals with expectations and outcomes. Learned helplessness takes into consideration the controllability or lack there of, of an outcome of a behavior. When a person has control over what will happen when they engage in a behavior there is a one-to-one relationship between behaviors and outcomes.
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