Affirmative action policies were first enacted in 1965 with the best
             of intentions -- to level the playing field for women and minority ethnic
             and racial groups. These policies have helped many people pursue higher
             education and as a result, secure better employment opportunities.
             However, in recent years, these same policies have given rise to charges of
             reverse discrimination, particularly in regard to university admission
             This paper argues for the continued need for affirmative action
             policies that give more consideration to the special circumstances of
             racial and ethnic minorities. This position is based on three main
             arguments. First, race and socio-economic class continue to play a large
             role in the academic performance of many minority students. Second,
             critics of race-based affirmative action fail to address the related issue
             of "developmental" admissions, which give preference to children from
             Finally, this paper points out that by increasing diversity on
             campuses, affirmative action in schools can have a long-term positive
             effect on American society as a whole. Because of these mitigating
             circumstances, this paper argues for the continued need for universities to
             use race and ethnicity as a circumstance in considering candidates for
             In their book The Shape of the River, former Princeton University
             president William Bowen and former Harvard University president Derek Bok
             argue for the necessity of goal-based affirmative action policies in
             colleges and universities. According to them, "if universities were flatly
             prohibited from considering race in admissionsâ€over half the black students
             in selective colleges today would have been rejected."[1]
             Critics often interpret this statement as evidence of affirmative
             action's disregard for individual merit. Affirmative action supporters
             such as Jesse Jackson point out that academic gr...