neutral countries alike. A notable exception is an increase in suicides by women in association with the loss of family members in war. Generally, suicide rates decrease during natural crises or disasters, and then increase after the emergencies have ended.[129] During the Nazi period, suicide among European Jews was an epidemic that peaked in 1942. In concentration camps, suicide rates were low, but increased after liberation.[11]
             Marital status and sexual orientation. There is a consistently lower frequency of suicides among married persons with dependent children, perhaps due to an increased sense of responsibility as well as selection bias associated with relatively healthy and successful adaptation. In contrast, elderly widowed men carry the highest suicide risk.[130]
             Early research on the relationship between sexual orientation and suicide risk usually involved selected research samples that were not necessarily representative of the general population. These studies found high rates of suicide attempts (20% to 39%) in young homosexuals and bisexuals that were 5-10 times above expected rates.[2] Some of these studies were not controlled for substance abuse. Nevertheless, better-designed studies tend to confirm the older findings and suggest that homosexuality can lead to social stress or identity conflicts with a consequent increase of suicidal behavior.[131-134]
             Socioeconomic status. Suicide is more frequent at both extremes of the socioeconomic spectrum, and there is increased risk following sharp changes of status -- up or down. However, very high and low levels of education show a lower suicide risk. Relationships of suicidal behavior and employment status have been inconsistent and suggest that unemployment is less stigmatized during times of general economic recession.[135,136] Unemployment may contribute to suicidal risk indirectly through its impact on family tension arising from economic deprivation and loss of n...