To begin, we should define organization as a stable, long-lived formal structure. They are legal entities with internal rules and procedures. They are social structures with unofficial but well understood policies. Rights, privileges, obligations, and responsibilities have been established over time through conflict and conflict resolution.
             Organizations have a division of labor based on specialization. Persons with specific skills or talents are arranged in a hierarchy of authority, subordinating power at each level to a superior category. Action is also constrained by abstract rules or standard operating procedures, politics, and culture. Hierarchies have been so prevalent because they are efficient; in fact an army could not be effective with any other type of structure.
             It takes enormous effort for a complete change in standard operating procedures. For an auto manufacturer to convert from Ford's assembly line to the Japanese style of team assembly would require a complete shutdown of production and retraining of personnel. Even the benefits of the metric system have not overcome the difficulties of change.
             Resistance is always the greatest at the top levels of hierarchies since they do not want to give up any of their power. This is an inherent characteristic of organizations. People no longer are able to measure their success by their progress up the "ladder of success". Individuals occupying different positions have differences in perspective, resulting in political struggle, competition, and conflict. Struggles can occur between individuals or entire groups. All significant changes are politically charged.
             Organizations are defined by fundamental assumptions. We assume professors know more than students, students attend college to learn, the purpose of colleges is to disseminate knowledge (the function of ASU professors is to have papers published) and libraries are storehouses o
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