s raised by the Protestants. Often working in an uneasy alliance with the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, Paul, like many of his successors, did not hesitate to use both dipl!
             omatic and military measures against the Protestants.
             IV INSTRUMENTS OF THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
             Beginning about 1542 a notably repressive current entered Roman Catholicism itself as the Index of Forbidden Books and a new Inquisition were instituted. The pontificate of Paul IV gave the most vigorous support to such measures. In Spain, the Inquisition became an instrument of the Crown, used effectively by King Philip II to ensure the orthodoxy of his subjects and to suppress both political and religious dissent.
             Towards the end of the century, partly under the influence of the Council of Trent, a number of worthy bishops emerged in northern Italy, zealous to reform their clergy and instruct their people. St Charles Borromeo of Milan became a model for many of them. The establishment of seminaries in many dioceses guaranteed a literate and morally upright clergy. In Rome, St Philip Neri had religious texts set to music and performed in informal gatherings, a practice that soon developed into the oratorio.
             V GROWTH OF THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
             In Germany, Catholics remained restless after the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, regarded by many of them as a victory for the Lutherans. German priests trained in Rome returned home better instructed and more eager to proselytize than their predecessors had been. St Peter Canisius produced a catechism that was a useful, if inferior, counterpart of Luther's. With heavy foreign subvention and intervention on both sides, the tensions erupted in the horrors of the Thirty Years' War, which raged from 1618 to 1648 and left Germany devastated, its religious energies exhausted.
             Owing to the Wars of Religion in France, the Counter-Reformation did not pick up momentum there until the 17th century. Devotion to the poor, as exemp...