on, we arrive at 444 B.C.. Two texts, components of
the Pentateuch referred to as 'J' and 'E' texts, can be traced to around
650 B.C. Note that 'J' refers to Yahweh (YHVH) texts, characterized by the
use of the word 'Yahweh' or 'Lord' in accounts; 'E' refers to Elohist
texts, which use, naturally, 'Elohim' in its references to God.1 But 650
B.C. isn't our oldest reference to the 'J' and 'E' texts; they can be
traced, along with the other three strands of the Pentateuch, to at least
1000 B.C. Our first compilation of these strands existed in 650 B.C.. We
must therefore begin our search further back in time.
We can begin with the father of the Hebrew people, Abraham. We can deduce
when he lived, and find that he lived around 1900 B.C. in ancient
Mesopotamia2. If we examine his world and its culture, we may find the
reasons behind certain references in Genesis, and the mythologies they
The First Babylonian Dynasty had begun around 1950 B.C. and would last
well into the late 16th century B.C.. The Babylonians had just conquered a
land previously under the control of the Assyrians, and before that, the
Summering. Abraham had lived during a time of great prosperity and a
remarkably advanced culture. He was initially believed to have come from
the city of Ur, as given in the Bible as "...the Ur of Chaldees". Earlier
translations read, however, simply "...Land of the Chaldees"; later, it was
deduced that Abraham had come from a city called Haran3. In any case, he
lived in a thriving and prosperous world. Homes were comfortable, even
luxurious. Copies of hymns were found next to mathematical tablets
detailing formulae for extracting square and cube roots.4 The level of
sophistication 4000 years ago is remarkable. We can also deduce that it
was a relatively stable and peaceful society; its art is characterized by
the absence of any warlike activity, paintings or sculptures.5
We ...